Malawi National Environmental Policy: a philosophical appraisal

1.0. INTRODUCTION

Malawi is facing serious challenges in environmental protection. Over the past twenty years, many hectors of forests have been cleared for agriculture. The major contributing factor to this problem is the rapid population growth that the nation has experienced in a space of twenty-five years. Poverty has also led to the destruction of trees as many rural people have wantonly destroyed indigenous trees for charcoal burning to generate income for supporting their families. This problem has been exacerbated by the fact that alternative sources of energy are expensive and some not available. Thus, there has been an increase in demand of firewood and charcoal and this has acted as a stimulant to those engaged in the business. It is in realization of these problems that the Malawi Government came with an environment policy in 1996 which contain principles of environmental protection. The central aim of this paper is to critically analyse the environment policy as captioned above.

In order to achieve its intended objective the essay will follow a specific outline. The first part of the paper offers a brief background of the Malawi environmental policy, specifically its origins, goals and principles. The second part briefly outlines the principles of United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as contained in the Rio Declaration, United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference) and Kyoto protocol. The other sections looks at the assumptions and implications behind the policy, its ethical foundations, its weaknesses and strengths, its link to international instruments and finally how and where can the policy be revised so as it best protects the environment.

2.0 MALAWI ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: ORIGINS, GOALS AND PRINCIPLES.

The National Environmental Policy, here in referred to as NEP, was adopted in 1996 and is based on the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP). The NEAP describes the condition of the environment in Malawi and proposes the measures to be taken in order to address the situation. The National environmental policy has fifteen guiding principles targeted to meet thirteen goals. Its principle goal is the promotion of sustainable development through environment protection. Most of the principles contained in the National Environmental Policy (NEP) relate the importance of environmental protection to social and economic development.

Briefly, one of the core principles states that every person has a right to a healthy environment and duty to maintain and promote the goodness of the environment (NEP, 2004: 4). This principle emphasises on the reciprocal duty that an individual has towards the environment after benefiting from it. This implies that the unnecessary use of the environment without the observarance of that duty attracts a legal or a moral punishment. There is also a principle relating to participation that emphasises that women, children and youth are vital in environmental protection. The sensitisation of children is important because they are the future leaders and women as an integral part of society should get involved in enhancing environmental management and protection (Ibid, 5). The other important principle is that individuals are obligated to use renewable resources in a sustainable way for their own benefit and for the benefit of the future generations (Ibid, 5). The NEP has also principles relating to poverty reduction and mitigation. The objective for this is to improve human welfare, sustainable environment and natural resources management (Ibid, 7)

3.0.UN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: ORIGINS AND PRINCIPLES.

United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) has its origins from a number of treaties and declarations that were conducted internationally under the umbrella organisation of the United Nations (UN). The Stockholm conference from which the Rio Declaration is derived is the main foundation of the United Nations Environmental policies.  At Stockholm conference in 1972, nations met to discuss the issue of environmental degradation. The conference results led to the emergency of the Rio Declaration, which contains fundamental principles as regards to environmental protection.

One of the fundamental principles of the Rio Declaration is that human beings are at the centre of the universe and there are guaranteed a healthy and productive life in conformity with nature. (Rio Declaration, Principle 1). Therefore, in exploiting the environment to attain a healthy and productive life, human beings have an obligation to preserve the environment. The Rio Declaration also states that environmental protection is part of development process. One way of protecting the environmental is the prevention of conflicts and their peaceful resolution (Ibid, Principle 26). Thus, peace, development and environmental protection are inter-dependent and indivisible. Participation of women, youth, and indigenous people also forms one of the core principles of the Rio Declaration (Ibid, Principles 20, 21 and 22). These principles are founded on the assumption that the environment is useful to everyone as such any individual has a duty towards its protection and sustenance. Principle 5 of the Rio Declaration also calls all state to take necessary measures to eradicate poverty as a prerequisite for environment protection.

4.0 THE LINK BETWEEN NEP AND UN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES.

Malawi is a party and conforms to internationally accepted principles of the 1972 Stockholm conference and the 1992 Rio Declaration. It has also signed and ratified a number of international treaties relating to environmental degradation and protection, apart from being a signatory to a number of conventions relating to the same (NEP, 2004:1). As such, there is a well-established link between the principles of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the principles of the NEP. The following are some of the links.

Firstly, both NEP and UNEP take a Consequentialist perspective on environmental protection. The principle of recognising the important of environmental protection due to its usefulness to human beings contained in NEP is also reflected in the United Nation Environmental Programme (NEP 2004:4 and Rio Declaration, Principles 1, 3, and 4). The view that the environmental is vital for socio- economic development of all human beings is held by the two bodies. It is from this basis that individuals have a duty to preserve the environment. In Malawi and elsewhere in the world, the environment plays a very important role to development. Hence, it is required that the environment be used in a sustainable way to promote development. This is why both the United Nations environmental policy and the Malawi National Environmental Policy recognise the importance of environmental protection.

Secondly, NEP views environmental protection not as vital only to the present generations, but also to the future generations (NEP, 2004:5). The present generations are enjoying the environment, henceforth; they have a duty to protect the environment to make it accessible to the future generations. This view is also stipulated under principle 1 of the 1972 Declaration on UN Conference on the Human Environment (DUNCHE), (Barcalow E, 2003:333) It states that renewable resources should be used in a sustainable way to benefit both the present and the future generations. Thus, there is a principle of intergenerational equity in both NEP policy and the DUNCHE. The principle of intergenerational equity sates that states and individuals are obliged to take into consideration the future impacts of their actions.

Moreover, participation of all groups is considered vital by both Malawi National Environmental Policy (NEP) and the Rio Declaration. NEP stipulates that women, children, youth, private sector, Non Governmental Organisations (NGO’s), Community Based Organisations (CBO’s) and all concerned parties forms an integral part in environmental management and protection, (NEP 2004:6). This principle is also contained in the Rio Declaration and it urges all states to incorporate all sectors of the society in environmental protection (Rio Declaration, Principle 10). This is in consideration that the issue of environmental degradation is of everyone’s concern and therefore cannot be dealt at state level alone. The environment is a common wealth as it benefits everyone, as such, every individual is obligated to use whatever means to preserve it for sustainable development.

More importantly, both NEP and UNEP consider poverty reduction as a fundamental step towards poverty reduction. NEP stipulates that poverty alleviation is important for sustainable environment and natural resource management (NEP 2004:7). UNEP compliment this by encouraging all nations to cooperate and take appropriate steps in the eradication of poverty, this constitute Principle 5 of the Rio Declaration. Thus, NEP and UNEP realises that poverty reduction is essential to environmental protection.

The other link is that both the NEP and the United Nations Environmental Policies contained in the Rio Declaration takes an ecosystem management approach. The protection of the ecosystem is very crucial and cannot be done at state level alone. NEP emphasises on the protection and conservation of ecosystems and this is stipulated under principle (E). The Rio Declaration substantiates this principle by fostering state cooperation in the protection and maintenance of ecosystems. Ecosystems are to be protected and maintained by reducing emissions of gases that destroys the ozone layer, increases levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which in turn brings imbalance to the ecosystems. Principles regarding the reduction of carbon emissions are contained in the Kyoto Protocol, a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This protocol is aimed at putting measures on the stabilizing of the greenhouse gases that affect the climate system and the ecosystems.

5.0. THE ETHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE NEP.

The NEP is founded on the ethical theory of Utilitarianism. From the utilitarian perspective, an action is right if it promotes the greatest good to the greatest number of people: Is bad if it produces unhappiness to the individuals. The theory of utilitarianism has been reflected in many principles of the Policy. For instance, the overall objective of protecting the environment is to preserve it so that in continues to enhance the healthy and productivity of human beings (NEP 2004:4). Thus, the driving force for individuals in protecting the environment is to prevent calamities that may negatively affect their welfare. From this respect, it can also be seen that the NEP is Anthropocentric as it focuses on human welfare as its main reason for protecting the environment.

The NEP is also founded on the liberal concepts of “equality and equity”, “rights and duties”. In terms of equality, NEP is founded on the principle of intergenerational equity. The principle requires that when acting individuals also consider the long-term effects of their actions on future generations (Bergen C, 1995:126). Therefore, human beings duty toward the environment is not only based on the immediate benefits that they gain, but also on consideration of the future beings. The notion of equality requires that equal individuals be given equal opportunities and privileges. Since the present generations have accessed the environment in a good condition and are benefiting from it, they have a duty to pay equitably the future generations just as the prior generations did to them. In this light, the NEP is also based on the concept of rights and duties.

6.0 ASSUMPTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS BEHIND THE NEP

The main assumption behind the NEP is that the environment is there to service the needs of human beings. This is substantiated by the fact that most of the principles contained in NEP are concerned with the protection of the environment so that to promote the healthy and socio-economic development of the individuals, society and the nation at large. The policy is anthropocentric as it places human beings at the centre of creation by advancing their needs.  

Secondly, the policy assumes that future generations have rights that present generations are obligated to respect. The fulfilment of these rights involves the protection of the environment for its continuation. Some of the principles of the policy place much emphasis on this.

 Turning to the implications, the anthropocentric view in the NEP implies that the environment has an instrumental value. It has value so long as it enhances human development. It has been observed that most of the principles contained in NEP relate the importance of environmental protection with social and economic development. This implies that the value of the environment depends on its usefulness to human beings. Human beings duty towards the environment as such is derived from the benefits they obtain from it.  

Secondly, the principle of Intergenerational equity, which is the ethical foundation of NEP disassociate the issue of rights from duties. It implies that and individual can have a right without having a duty. The principle asserts that present generations have a duty to the future generations. However, according to contractual theories, individuals have rights because they enter into a contract in which they implicitly agree to reciprocate good for good and evil for evil (Warren M, 1998:55). For instance, one does a good action towards another person with the expectation that a good act will also be return. The principle of intergenerational equity goes against that by implying that individuals have a duty even to those who cannot reciprocate.

7.0 STRENGTH AND WEAKNESSES OF THE NEP.

7.1 STRENGTHS

The first strength of the NEP is its realisation that issues of environmental protection cannot be done at state level alone. Environmental protection requires an integrated effort. NEP appreciates this by recommending that children, youth, women, men, Non-Governmental Organisations, Community based organisations any concerned citizen have to take part in preserving the environment (NEP, Principles c, d, h, and i p5). For instance, the issue of charcoal burning, which is main challenge as far as environment protection concerned in Malawi can be fully addressed if all individuals can have a duty to sensitize each other about its effects. The state alone cannot deal with that problem. It is in recognition of this that NEP calls for participation of all citizens in protecting the environment.

Secondly, NEP recognises that there is a strong link between poverty and environment degradation. Considering this, NEP has principles pertaining to poverty reduction and alleviation (NEP, p7). Income of most individuals in rural settings is generated by exploiting the environment, for example by charcoal burning and the selling of fuel wood. All this contributes to the destruction of forests. Therefore, by finding means of eradicating poverty the issue of environment protection cannot be simplified to some extent.

7.2 WEAKNESSES.

The major weakness of the NEP and one that requires an immediate solution is the enforcement of the policies. The National Environment Policy does not provide measures to be taken against those who misuse the environment. There is only one principle that states that individuals have a duty to take a legal action against those whose actions poses a serious threat to the environment (NEP Principle b, p5). However, legal punishments are difficult to enforce by the local people in villages, hence this gives absolute liberty to individuals who exploit the environment. Moreover, since there are few courts, it means even if one was to be taken to the courts the case will take a long time to be settled. In general, law reacts slowly as such legal punishment is not enough in deterring individuals from degrading the environment.

The other weakness is that the policy is cantered much on the promotion welfare of human beings. Most of the principles contained in it regard the environment to be useful because of its benefit to human beings. For instance, the overall goal of the policy is that the environment should be protected for sustainable development.  In this light, it is assumed that the environment has value defined by human beings. This gives a licence to individuals to exploit the environment without limits.

8.0. RECOMMENDATIONS.

The NEP is a workable environmental policy as it has well articulated objectives and principles that provide a sound basis for the protection of the environment. More especially NEP’s principle on poverty reduction and mitigation are crucial in environment protection. Malawi’s environment problems are largely to poverty as stated earlier in the introduction. Therefore, it is only by addressing poverty problems that the environment can be preserved.  However, they are two important areas that need to be addressed. These are areas of enforcement of the policy principles and approach.

 On enforcement, it has been stated elsewhere in this paper that the policy mainly emphasises on legal actions against those who misuse the environment. However, because of the slowness of legal process it has been observed that legal actions are not effective in deterring individuals in degrading the environment. Adding to this, legal actions can rarely be undertaken in local settings where most individuals are illiterate of legal procedures and processes. Considering this problem, it is therefore appropriate that some means of enforcing the policy principles be encouraged if we to fully protect our Environment. Punishments, like payment of money, should be administered by local people like chiefs so that to deter other individuals from committing the same crimes against the environment.  

In terms of approach, the NEP is more anthropocentric. It puts the human interests in the forefront as reason why individuals should protect the environment. Despite stipulating somewhere that Bio diversity has an intrinsic value independent of their use, it must be admitted that most of the principles are result oriented.  For instance, the overall goal of the policy is the conservation of the environment to enhance social and economic development. This means individual are obliged to preserve the environment for the attainment that development. There whosoever, sees that social and economic development is not valuable to him has no need to conserve. This is the problem with anthropocentric view; it leads to subjective values. The solution to this problem is that   the policy should emphasise on the intrinsic value of environment. This will make individuals to conserve the environment regardless of its usefulness to them.

9.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the paper has critically analysed the NEP. It has briefly outlined its origins goals and principles, its link to international instruments of the United Nations, its ethical foundations as well as the assumptions and implications behind it. It has also reflected of on the strengths and weaknesses of the policy. There recommendations to the weaknesses have also been suggested. It by considering the recommendations that the policy can be strengthen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Primary Text

Government of Malawi, National Environmental Policy: Environmental Affairs Department; Ministry of Land Energy and Mining. Venus Printing Press, 2004

Secondary Sources

Barcalow, E. Moral Philosophy: Theories and Issues, 3rdEd. California: Wadsworth,

2003.

Bergen C, Environmental Policy in an International Context: Perspectives on Environmental Problems: Arnold Publishers; Oxford University Press 1995.

Quarie J (Ed) Earth Summit: The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Rio De Janeiro, Regency Press Corporation, 1972

“Rio Declaration” in Pojman L, (Ed) Environmental Ethics 2^nd ED: Wadsworth, Belmont California 1998.

United Nations, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Declaration_on_Environment_and_Development)

________ Kyoto Protocol; Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol

Warren, M. “A Critique of Regans Animal Rights Theory” in Pojman, L (Editor) Environmental Ethics 2^nd ED. Wadsworth, Belmont California 1998

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Is prostitution a trade?

‘EVERYONE TRADES SOMETHING ABOUT THEIR BODY SO WHY NOT SEXUAL ACTIVITY?’

Human beings use several ways to find the means for existence. Electricians, plumbers, farmers, and carpenters use their hands to earn money for a living. Similarly, some women and women have sold their bodies sexually in return for money and other favors in order to prolong their existence. These people who sell their bodies sexually are called “prostitutes”, and the practice is known as “prostitution”. Therefore, just like the other means of sourcing money are allowed, then prostitution should also be allowed. Legally prostitution has been allowed in some countries. However, the discussion in this essay focuses much on the moral value of prostitution than its legality, since the legalization of an act cannot take away its morality.

Prostitution is defined as the “practice of engaging in sexual activity for immediate compensation in money or other valuable resources, in which affection and emotional investment are minimal or absent and in which the selection of partners is relatively indiscriminate” (Childress, 513). Prostitution occurs among heterosexuals and homosexuals. This essay focuses on the former and much emphasis is on women prostitution. Some have justified prostitution on the basis that all human beings, being autonomous are at liberty to use their bodies in what ever way they want, as long as they do not interfere with others. Another reason has been the need to address economic problems resulting from unemployment. Prostitution on the other hand, has been condemned because it devalues human dignity, it breeds diseases and therefore a threat to public health and it devalues sex for its intended purpose. The first part of this essay discusses the pro-prostitutionists arguments, seconded by the anti-prostitutionists arguments. This essay holds that prostitution is immoral and this will be objectified in the following discussion.

To begin with, prostitution is justified on the basis that all human beings are autonomous. They have the freedom to do as they will, but they should respect the freedom of others (Jones, 50). In prostitution there is a mutual agreement between the client and the prostitute. Their act does not have any harm on others. Therefore, since there is a rule which grants liberty to individuals to do what they like, provided it does not harm others, then prostitution is moral as it complies with the stated rule. Prostitution is like any other business where we have a willing seller and a willing buyer (Barcalow, 210). A customer purchases a commodity, such as soap from a shop and the owner sells that commodity in order to extract some profits. So is the case with prostitution, the client asks sexual services from a prostitute in order to relieve his sexual desires in return for money. Since both clients and prostitutes act autonomously and respect the freedom of others in there transactions, then prostitution is moral.

Secondly, it is claimed that prostitution provides a solution to the higher rates of unemployment, especially among African women and in other developing nations (Sheldon, 243). In many developing nations, women have responsibilities to provide their children with basic needs such as food, shelter, clothes and education. Since most women are unemployed, and therefore have low or no sources of income, these women may resort to prostitution in order earn money to maintain their families.

Moreover, there have been cases where a young girl who is an orphan has duties to take care of her younger brothers and sisters. As a result, that girl has to enter into prostitution as an alternative means of raising the needed resources. In this case the girl is more comfortable when she sells her body sexually (Barcalow, 210,). She has the money to buy food, clothes and other basic needs. Therefore, from a utilitarian perspective, the happiness obtained by being a prostitute in a situation where you have no any other means of earning a living outweighs the unhappiness of not being a prostitute in the same circumstances. Therefore, one may conclude that prostitution is moral, as the principle of utility only requires the maximization of pleasure and the minimization of pain in any action performed (Pojman, 371). This however is a narrow application of utilitarianism.

Though, pro-prostitutionists present such arguments as justifications for the activity, an analysis of these arguments shows that the justifications are flawed. They involve a narrow understanding of human rights and ethical theories.

Firstly, the arguments based on autonomy are weak. Though individuals are at liberty to do whatever they want, they have no liberty to destroy themselves. Moreover, individual freedom is controlled by the society. Kant in his moral theory said that no one should treat himself as a mere means to an end only (Rosenstand, 231). Prostitutes treat themselves as mere means to end their own miseries, a thing which is immoral because they use their autonomy to destroy themselves. They reduce themselves to mere tools. Moreover, Kant said that though in life we often use other people’s services, we should not reach an extent of disrespecting and reducing others to mere tools for our own comfort (Rosenstand, 231). In prostitution, the client takes advantage of the prostitute’s poverty and uses her as a tool for their own comfort. Her dignity as a human being is disregarded.   Therefore prostitution is immoral both to the client and the prostitute.

Secondly, to argue that prostitution is like any other trade where we have a willing seller and willing buyer is to commit a fallacy of weak analogy. The act of prostitution is like selling oneself into slavery where an individual is not autonomous. The slaves are not treated as free rational beings; they are treated as mere means to satisfy the owners. On the other hand, in other trades, for example, where MTL Wanderers buys a player from BIG Bullets, the player still retains his autonomy. It is the skill which is bought not the individual person, the player still retains his autonomy. Prostitution involves selling the whole body just as in slavery. There is no any skill which a prostitute can claim to be selling. So to lose personal autonomy and dignity in return for money is like treating oneself as a mere means to an end, which according to Kant’s categorical imperative is immoral (Rosenstand, 231). Thus, though there is a mutual agreement between client and a prostitute, that agreement is immoral and invalid, since in that agreement the prostitute is used merely as a means to the client comfort.

Additionally, it has been mentioned that most prostitute are women with severe economic problems (Sheldon, 243). However, poverty can not justify prostitution. Given other means of attaining their needs, the women could not enter into prostitution. That is, though any one has a right to do whatever they like, few women enter into prostitution as matter of exercising that right. These women are driven by desperation (Barcalow, 243).

Fourthly, prostitution must be discouraged because it is threat to public health. Prostitutes are at high risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), because most of their clients refuse the use of condoms (Dearborn, 408). Prostitutes lack power in sexual negotiations because of the money they receive. In this case, prostitutes are vulnerable to HIV/AIDS and other related diseases like syphilis, gonorrhea, and Chlamydia. There clients are also likely to pass these infectious diseases to their marriage partners. As a result a government loses a lot of money and resources managing and treating the diseases.  The money and the resources could be diverted to other projects like constructing roads, bridges, boreholes and subsidizing farm inputs, which could benefit more people. Thus, prostitution as a business works to the disadvantage of the public good. According to utilitarianism, an act is morally right if it maximizes happiness of the greatest number of people, not only the individual happiness (Birsch, 54). Prostitution only benefits the client ant the prostitute and therefore from utilitarian perspective it is immoral. Though HIV/AIDS could still spread in the absence of prostitution, the act must be condemned because it fuels the spread of the disease.

Moreover, even though prostitution was to be monitored, dangers could still be there. Diseases like HIV/AIDS have a window period at which they may not be detected, but can be transmitted to others. The tests are not reliable; hence clients are still at risk of contracting the diseases. Thus though there are some successes in countries that have legalized and monitored prostitution, dangers still persist (Dearborn 408). The monitoring of prostitutes is difficult especially in developing nations that always have few health centers and limited medical personnel’s required for those regular tests.

Prostitution among women also leads to the risk of contracting cervix cancer. It is argued that cancer of the cervix is rare in women who have had little or no hetero-sexual intercourse, and it is positively related to the number of male sexual partners a woman has (Doyal, 77). Therefore to enter into prostitution is to expose oneself to such risks. It is better to be poor than be rich and feel pain of such a long illness which is also expensive to cure. Of course the other professions are also risky, but it’s just a matter of weighing the risks. For example the risks in a teaching profession are few than in prostitution. Therefore from a utilitarian perspective prostitution is immoral. The principle of utility requires pleasure obtained from an action to outweigh its pain (Pojman, 371). Prostitution fails to a certain extent.

Lastly, prostitution is a profession without dignity. Prostitutes are oftenly beaten up or even murdered. There are vulnerable to several abuses because their business is done secretly, making it difficult to be monitored. These abuses rarely happen in other professions. People do not view the other professions with such a critical perspective as they do with prostitution. This means there is something intrinsically wrong with prostitution. It is not the act of sex or the money paid which is immoral in prostitution, but the intention of having sex and the means of getting the money. If sex is done in order to express love, then it is moral. But if done with the intention of getting money, then it is amoral. Kant in his moral theory said an action is to be judged by its intention, a morally upright action is done out of the good will (Rosestand, 225).

Following this discussion it can be observed that prostitution fails to satisfy the ethical theories of Kantian deontology and utilitarianism. Therefore I can conclude confidently and explicitly that prostitution, no matter the reasons are, is immoral and must be discouraged at all times.  

In conclusion this essay has discussed the reasons for and against prostitution. The reasons justifying prostitution include the practice of individual autonomy and the need to address social-economic problems. Prostitution is condemned from both Kantian and utilitarian perspective. From the Kantian perspective it has been observed that the client uses the prostitute just as a mere tool for his own comfort. The prostitute too uses her own body as a mere means to end her own miseries. For these reasons prostitution is immoral. From a utilitarian perspective it has shown that prostitution brings more harm than good to the public. It does not maximize the happiness of the greatest number of people, and therefore it is immoral.

    

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Barcalow, E. Moral Philosophy: Theories and Issues, 3rdEd. Wadsworth

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Ethics. SCE, London (1985).

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Health. Macmillan, London (1995)

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London (2003).

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Mc Graw, Boston Canada (2003)

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Barcalow, E. Moral Philosophy: Theories and Issues, 3rdEd. Wadsworth

California (2003).

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Childress, J.F & Mac Quarrie, J. (Eds). New Dictionary of Christian

Ethics. SCE, London (1985).

Doyal, L. What Makes a Woman Sick: Gender and Political economy of

Health. Macmillan, London (1995)

Jones, G. Existentialism is Humanism: Jean Paul Satre. John Murry,

London (2003).

Rosestand, N. The Moral of the Story: An Introduction to Ethics, 4thEd.

Mc Graw, Boston Canada (2003)

Sheldon, K. (Ed). Courtyards, Markets, City Streets: Urban women in

Africa. Westview, Colorado (1997).

Pojman, L. Philosophy: Quest for the Truth. Wadsworth,

California (1192)

Popkin, R. Introduction to Philosophy.

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Chicago (1995)

Aristotles' response to the platonic ideal state

AN ACCOUNT OF ARISTOTLE’S RESPONSE TO THE PLATONIC IDEAL STATE WITH REFERENCE TO ARITOTLE’S POLITICA.

The Republic is a sketch out of the best political order of philosopher kings founded on and aimed at the promotion of justice. It gives insights on matters relating to possession of power, the end of the state, ownership of property, children and women and system of education. Plato argues that Philosophers kings must rule. “Unless political power and Philosophy meet together there can be no rest in trouble” (Rep, Ch.xvii :177)[1].The Philosopher Kings are to be permanent rulers. Thus, Plato lays a blueprint of an ideal state. He further says that children and wives be owned in common and that guardians must not possess private property. If guardians own property privately, “they will give up their guardianship for the management of their farms…”and that family ties leads into quarrels and then disunity (Rep ch, xvi: 166). On women, for Plato, there is no management of social affairs, which belongs to man or woman exclusively, “both are of the same nature and must be allowed the same pursuits” (Rep, Ch.xv:153). The following is a detailed account of Aristotle’s response on Platonic ideal state.

To begin with, Aristotle’s asserts that there is nothing as a best political order. Any form of government is good relative to circumstances, arguing, “The best is often unattainable” (Pol. Bk2: 31)². The citizens should choose a form of government according to their aspirations or the ends they desire to meet. Therefore, the best legislator is one who is acquainted with that which is best suited to circumstances (Pol. Bk4:92). Briefly, Aristotle does not create a blueprint for an ideal state (Stumpf, E.S. 1966:112). Unlike Plato, Aristotle proposes a government of alternation. He argues, “The government by Socrates contains elements of danger, for he makes the same persons rule” (Pol. Bk2:33). He proposes that there should be an alternation so that each one rule and be ruled.

Proceeding from the above, Aristotle questions the platonic system of Education, which only targets the guardians, and leaves the husbandmen. He contends that though Plato says, “having so good education the citizens will not need many laws…he confines his education to the guardians” (Pol Bk2:33). This concern arises from his conviction that education is essential in preserving regimes. Better education produces a better character, which in turn produces better government, which is the common end of all citizens. Therefore, “Since there is a single end for the city as a whole, it is evident that education must necessarily be one and the same for all” (Pol, Bk8:207)

Responding on the communism of property, Aristotle argues that private property makes individuals happier and makes them practice the virtue of liberality (Pol., Bk2:31). In the Nicomachean Ethics liberality is the virtue of giving wealth and by wealth “we mean all the things whose value is measured by money” (Nic Eth, Bk4:48)³. Therefore, communism will lead to the annihilation of that virtue and other pleasures. In Politica, he states, “there is greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or a service to friends which can be rendered when a man has private property”, but this advantage is lost by common ownership (Pol. Bk4:31). Redressing the problem, Aristotle strikes the mean in stating that, though everyone will have his own property, some will be left at the disposal others and it is the business of the legislator to create in men this benevolent disposition. Realism and practicality are the main concerns for Aristotle. He observes that excess in both private owning and commonality are impractical. He therefore concludes that “property in a certain sense be common, but as a general rule private” not as Socrates alludes (Pol Bk2:31).

Aristotle also argues that the means, which Plato employs in attaining unity in the ideal state, are flawed. Socrates, he argues, “makes the women common and retains private property, the men will see to the fields”, but who will see to the household (Pol. Bk2:33). To appreciate this concern it is necessary to remember that in Aristotle’s teleological ethics, everything is created for a purpose (telos) and the function of women is to look for a household and of man to look for the field. Therefore, if women are to be communised none will look for households. Moreover, communism of women will not enable the virtue of temperance to manifest itself in society, for temperance “is to abstain from another’s wife for temperance sake” (Pol. Bk2:31).

On state ownership of children to severe the bond of parenthood, Aristotle observes, “Children are born like their parents and they will necessarily be finding indications of their relationship to one another” (Pol, Bk2:27). So, owning children in common as a means of unification is also flawed. He further highlights that severing relationships is the perpetration of immorality. The evils such as homicide, assaults, quarrels and slanders “which are most unholy when committed against fathers and mothers of near relations but not equally unholy when there is no relationship” may be common (Pol. Bk2:28). There will also be illegal love of sons and daughters

In addition, Aristotle argues that the ends, which Plato has in communising women, children and property, are wrong (Pol, Bk2:24). Plato makes unity a result of uniformity, but cities are preserved, not by complete unity, but reciprocal equality (Clayton, E 2006). He points out that “the nature of the state is plurality and in intending to create unity, from being a state it becomes a family and from being a family an individual” (Pol. Bk2:25). Thus, contrary to Plato’s thought, excessive unification destroys the state rather than preserving it, and the good of something must be that which preserves it, not that which destroys it. Therefore, “we ought not to attain that unity even if we could…” (Pol. Bk2:25). This argument is founded on the doctrine of golden mean. According to Aristotle the mean involves avoiding the two extremes of excessiveness and deficiency each of which is a vice (Russell, B 2008:169). Therefore, a good state is neither the one with too much unity nor that with too much disunity, but the one in the middle path.

The other problem, which Aristotle has with communism, concerns with care. He notes that, “that which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it” (Pol. Bk2: 27). It is usual to see people destroying public property, while exercising care towards their own property. This is the problem which social scientists call the problem of “collective goods” (Clayton E, 2006).  This problem also comes about because communism has a built in ambiguity and a contradiction. One has to say of the same thing “mine” and not “mine” and the same time (Pol. Bk2:33). Moreover, individuals will procrastinate in the performance of duties, as the communism would lead to each individual assuming someone else would care for the children and property, with the result that no one would. Substantiating this Aristotle argues, it is not lack of common property alone that leads to factionalism and conflict. Competition for honour is also another source of conflict which common ownership cannot eradicate. Considering these problems holding property in common is not a proper means towards state unification.

With regard to the social and political status of women in the family and society, Aristotle holds the view that “The male is by nature superior, and the female inferior and the one rules and the other is ruled” (Pol. Bk1:9). Following from this natural determination, women are not supposed to take part in politics as Plato assumes, just as the slaves and children, because all being inferior they should be under a master. “The slave has no deliberative faculty at all; the woman has, but it lacks authority and the child has but it is immature” (Pol. Bk2:9). Therefore, the courage of man is shown in commanding and of woman in obeying, for silence is the woman’s glory. However, in the household, Aristotle says, a woman has to be ruled in political fashion: Meaning the husband is to treat his wife as an equal to the degree that it is possible to do so, but must retain control over household decisions (Clayton E, 2006).

In conclusion, despite these differences, both Aristotle and Plato agree that the end of politics is the best ends and its main concern is to bring forth virtue in citizens. Both hold the view that the state is logically prior to the individual and that, it is only in the state in which humanity can manifest itself fully. Both agree that society is a diversity of interests; however, they differ on how to deal with such differences to avoid conflict. Plato goes for extreme uniformity by means of communism, while Aristotle for moderation in those interests, by means of inculcating virtue and moderation via a mean. However, despite these agreements, it is easy to see the divergent in Aristotle’s and Plato’s political thought, than the convergence in the qualities of the ideal state.  

REFERENCES:

Aristotle, Politics/Politica Jowet, J and Twining, T (Translators). Viking Press, New York, 1957

________ Nicomachean Ethics. W.D Ross (Translator).

Clayton, E Aristotle: Politics [Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy] 2006

Plato.   The Republic, Conford F.M. (Translator) Oxford University Press. 1965

Russell, B. History of Western Philosophy. Routlegde, London: New York, 2008.

Stumpf. E.S. Socrates to Sartre:  A History of Philosophy. Mc Graw. Hill, New, 1966

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[1] Rep=Republic, Bk= Book,  Ch= Chapter,  ² Pol=Politica,  ³Nic Eth= Nicomachean Ethics